Maxentius Constantine the Great Enemy Ancient Coin Temple of Roma i46459

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Maxentius - Roman Emperor : 307-312 A.D. Bronze Follis 25mm (6.10 grams) Rome  mint: 307-312 A.D. Reference: RIC 210 (VI, Roma), S 3779 IMPCMAXENTIVSPFAVG - Laureate head right.  CONSERVVRBSVAE Exe: RBS - Temple with six columns, Roma seated left within, holding globe and scepter with shield to right.

Royal/Imperial symbols of power

Ruling dynasties often exploit pomp and ceremony with the use of regalia : crowns , robes, orb (globe) and sceptres , some of which are reflections of formerly practical objects. The use of language mechanisms also support this differentiation with subjects talking of "the crown" and/or of "the throne " rather than referring directly to personal names and items.

Monarchies provide the most explicit demonstration of tools to strengthen the elevation of leaders. Thrones sit high on daises leading to subjects lifting their gaze (if they have permission) to contemplate the ruler. Architecture in general can set leaders apart: note the symbolism inherent in the very name of the Chinese imperial Forbidden City .

 

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The Temple of Venus and Roma — in Latin , Templum Veneris et Romae — is thought to have been the largest temple in Ancient Rome . Located on the Velian Hill , between the eastern edge of the Forum Romanum and the Colosseum , it was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix ("Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune") and Roma Aeterna ("Eternal Rome"). The architect was the emperor Hadrian and construction began in 121. It was officially inaugurated by Hadrian in 135, and finished in 141 under Antoninus Pius . Damaged by fire in 307, it was restored with alterations by the emperor Maxentius .

History

In order to build the temple, erected on the remnants of the porticoed vestibule to Emperor Nero 's Domus Aurea , the Colossus of Nero was moved and placed near the amphitheatre , which shortly afterwards became known as the Colosseum . Unimpressed by his emperor's architectural skills, Hadrian 's most brilliant architect, Apollodorus , made a scornful remark on the size of the seated statues within the cellae, saying that they would surely hurt their heads if they tried to stand up from their thrones. Apollodorus was banished and executed not long after this.[2]

According to the ancient historian Ammianus Marcellinus the temple was among the great buildings of Rome which astonished the Emperor Constantius II on his visit to the city in 357.[3]

Further restoration was performed under Eugenius , a short-lived usurper (392–394) against Theodosius I , whose policy was the restoration of Pagan cults and temples. However as with many of Rome's majestic ancient buildings the temple was later targeted for its rich materials. In 630 Pope Honorius I with the consent of the Emperor Heraclius, removed the gilt-bronze tiles from the roof of the temple for the adornment of St. Peter's.[4]

  Temple of Venus and Roma seen from the Colosseum.

A severe earthquake at the beginning of the 9th century is believed to have destroyed the temple. Around 850 Pope Leo IV ordered the building of a new church, Santa Maria Nova , on the ruins of the temple. After a major rebuilding in 1612, this church was renamed Santa Francesca Romana, incorporating Roma's cella as the belltower . The vast quantity of marble that once adorned the temple has all but disappeared due to its use as a raw material for building projects from the Middle Ages onwards. The Italian archaeologist Rodolfo Amedeo Lanciani makes reference to his discovery of a lime kiln in close proximity to the temple in his work The Destruction of Ancient Rome .

Presently only a few columns surrounding remain standing in their original positions, while others that have gone missing have been replaced by buxus trees.

Architecture   Bronze follis struck by Maxentius in Rome 308 - 310 AD. This coin is commemorating the reconstruction of the temple of Roma following the fire in 307 AD. Roma holding globe and sceptre seated within hexastyle temple with shield on the ground is depicted on the reverse.

Set on a platform measuring 145 metres (476 ft) in length and 100 metres (328 ft) in width, and stood 29.5 metres (97 ft) tall, being 31 metres (102 ft) counting the statues, the peristyle (also peripteral ) building measured 110 metres (361 ft) in length and 53 metres (174 ft) in width. The temple itself consisted of two main chambers (cellae ), each housing a cult statue of a god—Venus, the goddess of love, and Roma , the goddess of Rome, both figures seated on a throne. The cellae were arranged symmetrically back-to-back. Roma's cella faced west, looking out over the Forum Romanum, and Venus' cella faced east, looking out over the Colosseum. A row of four columns (tetrastyle ) lined the entrance to each cella, and the temple was bordered by colonnaded entrances ending in staircases that led down to the Colosseum.

The west and east sides of the temple (the short sides) had ten white columns (decastyle ), and the south and north (the long sides) featured eighteen white columns. All of these columns measured 1.8 metres (6 ft) in width, making the temple very imposing.

A reconstruction of the temple interior by German Architect Josef Bühlmann from 1913 depicts two longitudinal colonnades of Corinthian columns forming a central nave flanked by two aisles below a coffered vaulted ceiling. Resting on the columns a double impost forms a double entablature extending back into the exedra , with a cofferred half-dome ceiling above the seated statue. The walls behind the aisles are inset with smaller columns standing some distance above the floor on a plinth. Small statues set in niches between these columns punctuate the walls, the niches surmounted by alternating arched and triangular pediments . More small statues are positioned on the entablature above each small column.

As an additional clever subtlety by Hadrian, Venus also represented love (Amor in Latin), and "AMOR" is "ROMA" spelled backwards. Thus, placing the two divinities of Venus and Rome back-to-back in a single temple created a further symmetry with the back-to-back symmetry of their names as well. Within Venus' cella was another altar where newly wed couples could make sacrifices. Directly adjacent to this altar stood gigantic silver statues of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger .

Today   Canopy erected at the Temple of Venus and Rome during Good Friday ceremonies.

Since the papacy of John Paul II, the heights of the temple and its position opposite the main entrance to the Colosseum have been used to good effect as a public address platform. This may be seen in the photograph below where a red canopy has been erected to shelter the Pope as well as an illuminated cross, on the occasion of the Good Friday ceremony. The Pope, either personally or through a representative, leads the faithful through meditations on the stations of the cross while a cross is carried from there to the Colosseum.

The Temple has now been reopened to the public after an extensive restoration programme that lasted 26 years. Access to the temple is included in tickets for the Colosseum, the Forum and the Palatine Hill.

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 27828 October 312 ) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of former emperor Maximian , and the son-in-law of Galerius , also an emperor.

Princeps and Caesar: 306-307 A.D. Augustus: 307-308 (with Maximian and Constantine I) 308-312 A.D. (Sole Reign)

Birth and early life

Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278. He was the son of the emperor Maximian and his wife Eutropia.

As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who would eventually follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served in any important military or administrative position during Diocletian 's and his father's reign, though. Early (the exact date is unknown) he married Valeria Maximilla , the daughter of Galerius . He had two sons, Valerius Romulus (ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one.When he was about 8 years old he burned his carpet in his room which resulted in the death of his brother, Pompulus Arenas.

In 305, Diocletian and Maximian resigned, and the former caesares Constantius and Galerius became Augusti . Although with Constantine and Maxentius two sons of emperors were available, they were left out from the new tetrarchy , and Severus and Maximinus Daia were appointed Caesars. Some sources (Lactantius, Epitome ) state that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence on Diocletian that Maxentius be ignored in the succession; maybe Diocletianus also thought that he was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from Rome.

When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on July 25 and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the tetrarchy as Caesar . This set the precedent for Maxentius' accession later in the same year.

Accession

When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman population to the capitation tax, like every other city of the empire, and wanted to dissolve the remains of the Praetorian Guard which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A group of officers of the city's garrisons (Zosimus calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city's troops, and was publicly acclaimed emperor on October 28 , 306 . The usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office. Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a palace in Lucania , but he declined to resume power for the time being.

Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy, the islands of Corsica , Sardinia and Sicily , and the African provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western Augustus Severus , who resided in Milan .

Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and styled himself princeps invictus (Undefeated Prince), in the hope of obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius, Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly controlled his father's army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that his accession was part of the regular succession in the tetrarchy , but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus marched on Rome with a large army.

The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under Maxentius' father Maximian for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest of his army retreated to Ravenna . Shortly after he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life be spared.

After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up to the Alps and the Istrian peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes) had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.

Emperor

The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius himself marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus: by the promise of large sums of money, and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307 already, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine, and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to Gaul , where Constantine married his daughter Fausta and was in turn appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. However, Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius, and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion.

In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son, and he had to flee to Constantine.

In the conference of Carnuntum in the autumn of 308, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and Licinius was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the usurper's domain.

Late in 308, Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage , and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome's food supply. Under the command of his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus, he sent a small army to Africa which defeated and executed Alexander in 310 or 311; Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of Alexander's supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. Also in 310, he lost Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign, however, as Galerius fell mortally ill and died the next year.

Maxentius' eldest son Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of about 14, was consecrated and buried in a mausoleum in the Villa of Maxentius at the Via Appia . Near the villa, Maxentius also constructed the Circus of Maxentius .

After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated, and Maxentius allied with Maximinus to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.

By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics.[1] He died soon after April 30 , 311 .[2] Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.[3] On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.[4] Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new Bishop of Rome , Eusebius .[5]

Maxentius was far from secure, however. His early support was dissolving into open protest;[6] by 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported.[7] Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.[8] The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian's persecution had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy. The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius.[9] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".[10] Constantine, in an attempt to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius,[11] forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support.[12] Two alliances, Maximin and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.[13]

War against Constantine

Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius, and stationed an army in Verona.[14] Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north. Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men. The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.[15] It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.[16]

As early as weather permitted,[17] late in the spring of 312,[18] Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his total army, a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.[19] Having crossed the Cottian Alps at the Mont Cenis pass,[20] he first came to Segusium (Susa, Italy ), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his forces set its gates on fire, scaled its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town, and advanced into northern Italy.[21] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry,[22] labeled clibanarii or cataphracti in the ancient sources. In the ensuing battle Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.[23] Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.[24] Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.[25]

It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the Milvian Bridge on October 28 , 312 . Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable omens, especially as the day of battle would be his dies imperii , the day of his accession to the throne (which was October 28, 306). What else may have motivated him, is open to speculation.

The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia . Christian tradition, especially Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea , claims that Constantine fought under the labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished.

Overview and legacy

After Constantine's victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like Lactantius , under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image. Maxentius was a prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine's issue of a damnatio memoriae against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the forum Romanum , were in fact built by Maxentius[26].

Discovery of Imperial insignia

In December 2006, Italian archeologists announced that an excavation under a shrine near the Palatine Hill had unearthed several items in wooden boxes, which they identified as the imperial regalia , possibly belonging to Maxentius. The items in these boxes, which were wrapped in linen and what appears to be silk, include 3 complete lances, 4 javelins, what appears to be a base for standards, and three glass and chalcedony spheres. The most important find was a scepter of a flower holding a blue-green globe, which is believed to have belonged to the Emperor himself because of its intricate worksmanship, and has been dated to his rule[27]

These are the only known imperial insignia so far recovered, which hitherto had only been known from coins and wall paintings. Clementina Panella, the archaeologist who made the discovery states that "These artifacts clearly belonged to the emperor, especially the scepter, which is very elaborated, it's not an item you would let someone else have." Panella notes that the insignia were likely hidden by Maxentius' supporters in an attempt to preserve the emperor's memory after he was defeated at the Battle of Milvian Bridge by Constantine.[28] The items have been restored and are on temporary display at the Museo Nazionale Romano at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.


The Principate

 Julio-Claudian dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

16 January 27 BC to 19 August AD 14

Augustus

 

19 August 14 to 16 March 37

Tiberius

 

18 March 37 to 24 January 41

Caligula

Murdered by Praetorian Guard

24 January 41 to 13 October 54

Claudius

Poisoned by his wife Agrippina, mother of Nero

13 October 54 to 11 June 68

Nero

Made a slave kill him

 Year of the Four Emperors (Civil War)

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

8 June 68 to 15 January 69

Galba

Murdered in favour of Otho

15 January 69 to 16 April 69

Otho

Committed suicide

2 January 69 to 20 December 69

Vitellius

Murdered in favour of Vespasian

 Flavian dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

1 July 69 to 24 June 79

Vespasian

 

24 June 79 to 13 September 81

Titus

Possibly assassinated by Domitian

14 September 81 to 18 September 96

Domitian

Assassinated

 Nervan-Antonian dynasty

Main article: Five Good Emperors

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

18 September 96 to 27 January 98

Nerva

Proclaimed emperor by senate

28 January 98 to 7 August 117

Trajan

 

11 August 117 to 10 July 138

Hadrian

 

10 July 138 to 7 March 161

Antoninus Pius

 

7 March 161 to 17 March 180

Marcus Aurelius

 

7 March 161 to March 169

Lucius Verus

Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius

175

Avidius Cassius

Usurper; ruled in Egypt and Syria; murdered by his own army

177 to 31 December 192

Commodus

Assassinated

 Year of the Five Emperors & Severan dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

1 January 193 to 28 March 193

Pertinax

Proclaimed emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard

28 March 193 to 1 June 193

Didius Julianus

Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard; executed on orders of the Senate

9 April 193 to 4 February 211

Septimius Severus

Proclaimed emperor by Pannonian troops; accepted by senate

193 to 194/195

Pescennius Niger

Proclaimed emperor by Syrian troops, defeated in battle by Septimius Severus

193/195 to 197

Clodius Albinus

Proclaimed emperor by British troops, defeated in battle by Septimius Severus

198 to 8 April 217

Caracalla

Assassinated at the behest of Macrinus

209 to 4 February 211

Geta

Co-emperor with Caracalla ; assassinated on orders of Caracalla

11 April 217 to June 218

Macrinus

Proclaimed himself emperor; executed on orders of Elagabalus

May 217 to June 218

Diadumenian

Junior co-emperor under Macrinus ; executed

June 218 to 222

Elagabalus

Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by his own troops

13 March 222 to ? March 235

Alexander Severus

Murdered by his own troops

 Rulers during the Crisis of the Third Century

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

February/March 235 to March/April 238

Maximinus Thrax

Proclaimed emperor by the army; murdered by Praetorian Guard

early January/March 238 to late January/April 238

Gordian I

Proclaimed emperor in Africa; committed suicide after Gordian II 's death

early January March 238 to late January/April 238

Gordian II

Proclaimed emperor with Gordian I , killed in battle

early February 238 to early May 238

Pupienus

Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard

early February 238 to early May 238

Balbinus

Proclaimed joint emperor by senate; murdered by Praetorian Guard

May 238 to February 244

Gordian III

Nephew of Gordian II ; death unclear, probably murdered

240

Sabinianus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated in battle

February 244 to September/October 249

Philip the Arab

Proclaimed emperor after death of Gordian III ; killed in battle by Decius

248

Pacatianus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; murdered by his own soldiers

248 to 249

Iotapianus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor in the east; murdered by his own soldiers

248? or 253?

Silbannacus

Usurper; details essentially unknown

249 to June 251

Decius

Killed in battle

249 to 252

Priscus

Proclaimed himself emperor in the east in opposition to Decius

250 to 250

Licinianus

Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Rome; rebellion suppressed

early 251 to June 251

Herennius Etruscus

Junior co-emperor under Decius ; killed in battle

251

Hostilian

Son of Decius ; died of plague

June 251 to August 253

Gallus

Proclaimed emperor by his troops after Decius's death; murdered by them in favour of Aemilianus

July 251 to August 253

Volusianus

Junior co-emperor under Gallus ; murdered by army

August 253 to October 253

Aemilian

Proclaimed emperor by his troops; murdered by them in favour of Valerian

253 to June 260

Valerian

Proclaimed emperor by his troops; captured in battle by the Persians ; died in captivity

253 to September 268

Gallienus

Junior co-emperor under Valerian to 260; probably murdered by his generals

260

Saloninus

Son of Gallienus ; proclaimed emperor by army; murdered shortly after by troops of Postumus

June 260 (or 258)

Ingenuus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after Valerian 's capture; defeated in battle

260

Regalianus

Usurper; proclaimed emperor after Ingenuus 's defeat; fate unclear

260 to 261

Macrianus Major

Usurper; proclaimed emperor by eastern army; defeated and killed in battle

260 to 261

Macrianus Minor

Usurper; son of Macrianus Major ; defeated and killed in battle

260 to 261

Quietus

Usurper; son of Macrianus Major ; defeated and killed in battle

261 to 261 or 262

Mussius Aemilianus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after the defeat of the Macriani; defeated and executed

268 to 268

Aureolus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor after Gallienus 's death; surrendered to Claudius II Gothicus ; murdered by Praetorian Guard

268 to August 270

Claudius II Gothicus

Proclaimed emperor by the army

August 270 to September 270

Quintillus

Proclaimed himself emperor; cause of death unclear

August 270 to 275

Aurelian

Proclaimed emperor by army; murdered by the Praetorian Guard

271 to 271

Septimius

Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Dalmatia ; killed by his own soldiers

November/December 275 to July 276

Tacitus

Appointed emperor by the Senate; possibly assassinated

July 276 to September 276

Florianus

Brother of Tacitus , proclaimed emperor by the western army; murdered by his troops

July 276 to late September 282

Probus

Proclaimed emperor by the eastern army; murdered by his own soldiers in favour of Carus

280

Julius Saturninus

Usurper; proclaimed emperor by his troops; then killed by them

280

Proculus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor at the request of the people of Lugdunum ; executed by Probus

280

Bonosus

Usurper; proclaimed himself emperor; defeated by Probus and committed suicide

September 282 to July/August 283

Carus

Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian guard

spring 283 to summer 285

Carinus

Son of Carus; co-emperor with Numerian ; fate unclear

July/August 283 to November 284

Numerian

Son of Carus; co-emperor with Carinus ; probably murdered

 Gallic Empire 260 to 274

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

260 to 268

Postumus

Declared himself emperor after Valerian 's death; killed by his own troops

268 to 268

Laelianus

Proclaimed himself emperor in opposition to Postumus; defeated and killed by Postumus

269 to 269

Marius

Proclaimed himself emperor after Postumus's death

269 to 271

Victorinus

Proclaimed emperor after Marius's death

270 to 271

Domitianus

Proclaimed himself emperor of the Gallic Empire

271 to 274

Tetricus I

Nominated heir to Victorinus

 Britannic Empire 286 to 297

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

286 to 293

Carausius

Declared himself emperor; assassinated by Allectus

293 to 297

Allectus

Declared himself emperor after Carausius 's death; defeated by Constantius Chlorus

 Dominate

 Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

20 November 284 to 1 May 305

Diocletian

Declared emperor by the army after Numerian's death; Abdicated

1 April 286 to 1 May 305

Maximian

Made co-emperor ('Augustus') with Diocletian ; abdicated

1 May 305 to 25 July 306

Constantius I Chlorus

Made junior co-emperor ('Caesar') under Maximian ; became Augustus after his abdication

1 May 305 to May 311

Galerius

Made junior co-emperor ('Caesar') under Diocletian ; became Augustus after his abdication

August 306 to 16 September 307

Severus II

Made junior co-emperor ('Caesar') under Constantius Chlorus ; became Augustus after his death; executed by Maxentius

28 October 306 to 28 October 312

Maxentius

Son of Maximian ; proclaimed Augustus by Praetorian Guard ; defeated in battle by Constantine I

de jure: 307, de facto 312 to 22 May 337

Constantine I

Son of Constantius Chlorus ; proclaimed Augustus by army

308 -309 ?/311 ?

Domitius Alexander

Proclaimed emperor in Africa; defeated in battle by Maxentius

11 November 308 to 18 September 324

Licinius

Appointed Augustus by Galerius ; deposed by Constantine I and executed

1 May 311 to July/August 313

Maximinus Daia

Made junior co-emperor ('Caesar') under Galerius ; became Augustus after his death; defeated in battle by Licinius and committed suicide

December 316 to 1 March 317

Valerius Valens

Appointed co-Augustus by Licinius ; executed by Licinius

July to 18 September 324

Martinianus

Appointed co-Augustus by Licinius ; deposed by Constantine I and executed

337 to 340

Constantine II

Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers; killed in battle

337 to 361

Constantius II

Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers

337 to 350

Constans I

Son of Constantine I ; co-emperor with his brothers, killed by Magnentius

January 350 to 11 August 353

Magnentius

Usurper; proclaimed emperor by the army; defeated by Constantius II and committed suicide

c. 350

Vetranio

Proclaimed himself emperor against Magnentius ; recognized by Constantius II but then deposed

c. 350

Nepotianus

Proclaimed himself emperor against Magnentius , defeated and executed by Magnentius

November 361 to June 363

Julian

Cousin of Constantius II ; made Caesar by Constantius, then proclaimed Augustus by the army; killed in battle

363 to 17 February 364

Jovian

Proclaimed emperor by the army after Julian 's death

 Valentinian dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

26 February 364 to 17 November 375

Valentinian I

Valentinian I Coins.htm

Proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian 's death

28 March 365 to 9 August 378

Valens

Made co-emperor in the east by his brother Valentinian I ; killed in battle

September 365 to 27 May 366

Procopius

Usurper; Proclaimed himself emperor; defeated and executed by Valens

24 August 367 to 383

Gratian

Gratian Coins.htm

Son of Valentinian I ; assassinated

375 to 392

Valentinian II

Valentinian II Coins.htm

Son of Valentinian I ; deposed by Arbogast and died in suspicious circumstances

383 to 388

Magnus Maximus

Magnus Maximus Coins.htm

Usurper; proclaimed emperor by troops; at one time recognized by Theodosius I , but then deposed and executed

c. 386 to 388

Flavius Victor

Flavius Victor Coins.htm

Son of Magnus Maximus, executed on orders of Theodosius I

392 to 394

Eugenius

Eugenius Coins.htm

Usurper; proclaimed emperor by army under Arbogast ; defeated in battle by Theodosius I

 Theodosian dynasty

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

379 to 17 January 395

Theodosius I

Theodosius I Coins.htm

Made co-emperor for the east by Gratian

383 to 408 EAST

Arcadius

Arcadius Coins.htm

Appointed co-emperor with his father Theodosius I ; sole emperor for the east from January 395

23 January 393 to 15 August 423 WEST

Honorius

Honorius Coins.htm

Appointed Augustus for the west by his father Theodosius I

407 to 411 WEST

Constantine III

Constantine III Coins.htm

Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Britain; defeated by Constantius III

409 to 411 WEST

Constans II

Constans II Coins.htm

Usurper; made emperor by his father Constantine III ; killed in battle

409 and 414 to 415 WEST

Priscus Attalus

Priscus Attalus Coins.htm

Usurper; twice proclaimed emperor by Visigoths under Alaric and twice deposed by Honorius

409 to 411 WEST

Maximus

Maximus Coins.htm

Usurper; proclaimed emperor in Spain; abdicated

411 to 413 WEST

Jovinus

Jovinus Coins.htm

Usurper; proclaimed emperor after Constantine III 's death, executed by Honorius

412 to 413 WEST

Sebastianus

Sebastianus Coins.htm

Usurper; appointed co-emperor by Jovinus , executed by Honorius

408 to 450 EAST

Theodosius II

Theodosius II Coins.htm

Son of Arcadius

421 to 421 WEST

Constantius III

Constantius III Coins.htm

Son-in-law of Theodosius I ; appointed co-emperor by Honorius

423 to 425 WEST

Joannes

Johannes Coins.htm

Proclaimed western emperor, initially undisputed; defeated and executed by Theodosius II in favour of Valentinian III

425 to 16 March 455 WEST

Valentinian III

Valentinian III Coins.htm

Son of Constantius III ; appointed emperor by Theodosius II ; assassinated

 Western Roman Empire

Reign

Incumbent

Notes

17 March 455 to 31 May 455

Petronius Maximus

Petronius Maximus Coins.htm

Proclaimed himself emperor after Valentinian III 's death; murdered

June 455 to 17 October 456

Avitus

Avitus Coins.htm

Proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II ; deposed by Ricimer

457 to 2 August 461

Majorian

Majorian Coins.htm

Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer

461 to 465

Libius Severus

Libius Severus Coins.htm

Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer

12 April 467 to 11 July 472

Anthemius

Anthemius Coins.htm

Appointed by Ricimer ; deposed and executed by Ricimer

July 472 to 2 November 472

Olybrius

Olybrius Coins.htm

Appointed by Ricimer

5 March 473 to June 474

Glycerius

Glycerius Coins.htm

Appointed by Gundobad ; deposed by Julius Nepos

June 474 to 25 April 480

Julius Nepos

Julius Nepos Coins.htm

Appointed by eastern emperor Leo I ; deposed in Italy by Orestes in 475; continued to be recognised as lawful emperor in Gaul and Dalmatia until his murder in 480

31 October 475 to 4 September 476

Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus )

Romulus Augustus Coins.htm

Son of Orestes ; deposed by Odoacer ; fate unknown

Further information: Barbarian kings of Italy

 Eastern Roman Empire

  • For the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire ) after Theodosius II , see: List of Byzantine Emperors

Theodosian dynasty (395–457) See also: Theodosian dynasty
Name Reign Comments
  Theodosius I "the Great" (Θεοδόσιος Α' ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius )Theodosius I Coins.htm 19 January 379 – 17 January 395 Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor
  Arcadius (Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius )Arcadius Coins.htm 17 January 395 – 1 May 408 Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I. Succeeded upon the death of his father
  Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος Β', Flavius Theodosius ) Theodosius II Coins.htm 1 May 408 – 28 July 450 Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident
Marcian (Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus )

Marcian Coins.htm

450 – January 457 Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria , Theodosius II's sister, following the latter's death. Died of gangrene

Leonid dynasty (457–518) See also: House of Leo
Name Reign Comments
  Leo I "the Thracian" (Λέων Α' ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo )

Leo I Coins.htm

7 February 457 – 18 January 474 Born in Dacia in 401. A common soldier, he was chosen by Aspar , commander-in-chief of the army. Died of dysentery
Leo II (Λέων Β', Flavius Leo )

Leo II Coins.htm

18 January – 17 November 474 Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned
Zeno (Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno )

Zeno Coins.htm

17 November 474 – 9 April 491 Born c.425 at Zenonopolis , Isauria , originally named Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9 February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and regained the throne in August 476.
Basiliscus (Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus )

Basiliscus Coins.htm

9 January 475 – August 476 General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477
Anastasius I (Αναστάσιος Α', Flavius Anastasius )

BYZANTINE - Anastasius Coins.htm

11 April 491 – 9 July 518 Born c. 430 at Dyrrhachium , Epirus nova . A palace official (silentiarius ) and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager Ariadne

Justinian Dynasty Main article: Justinian Dynasty
Portrait Name Born Reigned Succession Died
Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS c. 450 AD, Naissus July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I) ; elected as emperor with support of army August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS c. 482 AD, Tauresium , Dardania August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I 13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS c. 520 AD, ? 13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD Nephew of Justinian I 578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin's death in 578

Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm

Roman AE4 Coins.htm

 

 

 


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