RARE Antique 1926 PRINCETON UNIVERSITY Athletic Medal Badge Button DISCUS THROW!

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Seller: Top-Rated Plus Seller cosmic_goods ✉️ (3,624) 100%, Location: Freeport, Maine, US, Ships to: US & many other countries, Item: 186076728685 RARE Antique 1926 PRINCETON UNIVERSITY Athletic Medal Badge Button DISCUS THROW!.
  • Rare
  • Antique!
  • 1926!
  • Collect them all... 
  • Sterling Silver 
  • "Discus Throwing" Medal
  • From the Princeton "Caledonian Games"... a modern version, of the classic Scottish Highland Games..
  • PUTAA Badge
  • Made by the fine, speciality, jewlers of the time D & C (Dieges & Clust)
  • Has a very fun flying-foot on the front, Princeton's Black/Orange colors in enamel and some ornate embossing of thistle flowers.
  • Would make for a lovely charm on a modern day necklace.
  • A rare, early, medal from one of America's eight (8) IVY League Schools (shhh... it should be in their museum).
  • I package well and ship out daily!

Dieges & Clust 1 language
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A silver medal, cast by Dieges & Clust and awarded at the 1904 Olympic Games .

Dieges & Clust  were jewellers established in New York [1] [2]  in 1898 by Col. Charles Joseph Dieges (b. Oct. 26, 1865-d. Sept. 14, 1953) and Prosper Clust (b. Sept. 26, 1873-d. Mar. 28, 1933).[3] [1]

History [ edit ]

The firm was founded in 1898 as a partnership between Charles Joseph Dieges and Prosper Clust. The partnership was converted to a company in 1908 with Dieges as president and director, and with Clust as secretary-treasurer and director.[4]

The firm was located at 20 John Street, New York, New York, expanding to have offices in Boston, Pittsburgh, and Chicago.[5] [6]

The firm was sold to Herff Jones  (a division of Carnation) on January 1, 1980.[7]

Major works [ edit ]

They produced many medals, including the Spanish–American War Medal, the 1904 Olympic Medal, the Eagle Scout medal (from 1916 to 1920),[8]  New York State World War I Service Medal , the Medal of Honour, and the Titanic-Carpathia Medals (at the request of "The Unsinkable" Mrs. Molly Brown). They made baseball's first Most Valuable Player Awards and many Baseball Press Pins as well as Lou Gehrig 's farewell plaque. They also cast the Heisman Trophy  (in New York and later Providence, Rhode Island ) from its inception in 1935 through late 1979 when the company was sold to Herff Jones  (a division of Carnation) on January 1, 1980.[7]

Perhaps the height of Dieges & Clust's production were the 1920s trophies known in sports collecting circles as "The Five Figural Spalding Baseball Trophies". The various trophies depict a baseball player pitching, catching, batting, playing first base, or playing in the outfield. The proportions of the figures and the detail (of the faces, fingers, stitching in the baseball gloves and shoelaces) are remarkable.[citation needed ] They fetch up to $5,000 at auction, relatively high for a silver-plated trophy on a wooden base.[citation needed ]

The company produced the Martin J. Sheridan Medal for Valor for the New York City Police Department (NYPD) that was established in honor of Detective Martin J. Sheridan – the Irish-American Athletic Club's star U.S. Olympic champion who died in 1918 of the influenza pandemic. The medal was first presented in 1922 and regularly awarded until discontinued in 1975. The medal was initially paid for through a trust fund established by the Martin J. Sheridan Memorial Committee, with New York State Supreme Court Justice Daniel F. Cohalan serving as chairman.[9]

A 1936 New York Yankees World Series ring  cast by Dieges & Clust and owned by Lou Gehrig held the record sale price for such a ring at $17,500.[10]

In 1999, Sotheby's sold what was believed to be Lou Gehrig's 1927 ring for $96,000.

Staff [ edit ]

Charles Joseph Dieges [ edit ]

Charles Dieges, president and director of the company after 1908, served in the US 22nd Regiment in World War I  and participated on the US Olympics team.

  • 1902, October 27: Joined 22nd Regiment, New York Engineers, New York National Guard.[11] [12]
  • 1904, March 14: Corporal, 22nd Regiment, NY Engineers, NYNG[11]
  • 1904: Member of the United States Olympics Tug of War team  at the 1904 Summer Olympics [13]
  • 1905, December 11: Sergeant, 22nd Regiment, NY Engineers, NYNG[11]
  • 1906, March 30: Second Lieutenant, 22nd Regiment, NY Engineers, NYNG[11]
  • 1906, May 18: First Lieutenant, 22nd Regiment, NY Engineers, NYNG[11]
  • 1910: Associate Life Member of the American Numismatic Society [14]
  • 1911: Elected to the Military Athletic League as a member of New York Military Athletic League.[15]
  • 1916, July 7: Mustered in to U.S. service.[12]

Memberships

  • Ancient Order of Timers
  • Order of the G.G.F. (General Good Fellows)
  • Elks
  • Masons[16]

Prosper Clust [ edit ]

Prosper was a manufacturing jeweler who learned the trade from his father Ernest Clust, who emigrated from France in 1872. He was secretary-treasurer and director of the company after 1908.[4]

Constanzo Luini [ edit ]

Constanzo was a medalist with Dieges & Clust who specialized patriotic and religious themes. He was born in 1886 and a descendant of Bernardino Luini , a fresco painter and student of Leonardo da Vinci . Costanzo immigrated to the United States at the turn of the century.

Highland games 22 languages
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Opening ceremonies of 2004 Canmore  Highland games

Highland games  (Scottish Gaelic : geamannan Gàidhealach ) are events held in spring and summer in Scotland  and other countries with a large Scottish diaspora , as a way of celebrating Scottish and Celtic  culture, especially that of the Scottish Highlands . Certain aspects of the games are so well known as to have become emblematic of Scotland, such as the bagpipes , the kilt , and the heavy events, especially the caber toss  and weight over bar . While centred on competitions in piping and drumming, dancing, and Scottish heavy athletics, the games also include entertainment and exhibits related to other aspects of Scottish and Gaelic  cultures.

The Cowal Highland Gathering , better known as the Cowal Games, is held in Dunoon , Scotland , every August. It is the largest Highland games in the world,[a]  attracting around 3,500 competitors and somewhere in the region of 23,000 spectators[1] [2]  from around the globe. Worldwide, however, it is exceeded in terms of spectators by three gatherings in the United States: the estimated 30,000[3]  that attend Grandfather Mountain  in North Carolina ; the New Hampshire Highland Games & Festival, which attracts over 35,000 annually; and the even larger Northern California gathering—the largest in the Northern Hemisphere[4] —that has taken place every year since 1866.[5]  This event, the Scottish Highland Gathering and Games, is currently held on Labor Day weekend in Pleasanton, California ; the sesquicentennial event held on 5–6 September 2015 attracted record crowds close to 50,000.[4]

The games are claimed to have influenced Baron Pierre de Coubertin  when he was planning the revival of the Olympic Games . De Coubertin saw a display of Highland games at the Paris Exhibition of 1889 .[6] [b]

History [ edit ]

Early events [ edit ]

The first historical reference to the type of events held at Highland games in Scotland was made during the time of King Malcolm III  (Scottish Gaelic : Máel Coluim , c. 1031 – 13 November 1093) when he summoned men to race up Craig Choinnich overlooking Braemar with the aim of finding the fastest runner in Scotland to be his royal messenger.[citation needed ] There is a document from 1703 summoning the clan  of the Laird of Grant, Clan Grant . They were to arrive wearing Highland coats and "also with gun , sword , pistol  and dirk ".[c]  From this letter, it is surmised that the competitions would have included feats of arms.[citation needed ]

There are also thought to have been events where the strongest and bravest soldiers in Scotland would be tested. Musicians and dancers were encouraged to reveal their skill and talents and so be a great credit to the clan that they represented.[citation needed ] Some modern sources suggest more these games would originate from the deer hunts that the inhabitants of the Highlands engaged in.[7]

Attempts have been made to discover earlier traditions of games, although evidence is thin. The primary sources are from the bardic traditions of both contests between clans and of tests to select retainers for clan chiefs. An example of a possible early games venue is at Fetteresso ,[citation needed ] although that location is technically a few miles south of the Scotland Highlands.

Modern events [ edit ] Massed bands  at the Glengarry Highland Games , Maxville, Ontario, Canada, 2006 Weight over the bar event at the Carmunnock  Highland Games, Scotland Highland Dancing Competition at the Dornoch  Highland Gathering, Scotland

The modern Highland games are largely a 19th-century development, from the period following the Jacobite rebellions  and subsequent ban  on Highland dress .[d]

By the mid-20th century,[8]  annual Highland games events, modelled on the traditional events in Scotland along with some elements borrowed from the mòd  festivals, had been established not just in Scotland but throughout the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, among other places with a notable Scottish diaspora , which totals about 50 million people worldwide.[9]  (The earliest such events in North America go back quite a way, to 1836 in New York[10]  and at least 1863 in Nova Scotia.)[11]  The modern, rather commercialised[12]  gatherings have done much to promote tartan, kilts, and other elements of Highland culture abroad, having up to tens of thousands of attendees,[13]  a large proportion of them in Highland dress. The games are the primary source of business for a cottage industry of professional kiltmakers outside of Scotland, and are the main recruiting grounds of the numerous clan societies.[e]

While the Scottish Highland Games Association says there are dozens of such events in Scotland,[15]  there were at least 260 annual Highland games events worldwide as of 2000,[16]  more than 100 of them in the US alone, and dozens more in Canada.[15]  They are closely intertwined with bagpipe  band competitions (which date to 1781), a lasting source of Highland imagery in their regiment -inspired uniforms; the 2013 World Pipe Band Championships  in Glasgow drew over 8,000 pipers and drummers from all over the world.[17]

The games' rather flamboyantly[18]  tartaned subculture , a "shortcut to the Highlands",[19]  is sustained outside Scotland primarily by multi-generational Scottish descendants rather than by direct Scottish expatriates.[20] [21]  Sir Malcolm MacGregor , chief of Clan Gregor  and then convenor of the Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs  (well aware of tartan's connections to tourism and other Scottish economic interests) wrote in 2016 of the games events beyond Scotland that "it is the stuff of kilts and cabers , but it is the Scotland those not living in Scotland want it to be."[22]  Ian Brown (2012) coined the term tartanism  (as distinct from tartanry ) for this international tokenisation of tartan, kilts, and other symbols of the Highlands as ethnic-identity  markers, evolving to some degree independently to suit the cultural needs of the New World Scottish diaspora and unrestrained by the views of the originating Scottish "home" culture.[23]  Michael B. Paterson (2001) hypothesises that the fondness for Highland symbols and activities among the diaspora may be due to the European-descended populations in these countries lacking much of a direct experience of culture deeper than a few generations, and being dominated by nuclear family  structure;[24]  Highland games, clan tartans, Burns suppers , St Andrew's societies  (more than 1,200 of them just in the US), etc. provide a sense of shared roots, heritage, identity, and a broader and more elastic notion of family, as well as fostering Old World, "mother country" connections.[24] [25]  Fiona K. Armstrong (2017) writes: "It is a feudal longing in a modern age. It is a yearning for some supposedly comforting and ordered past."[22]  According to Ian Maitland Hume (2001):[26]

Tartan and the kilt encapsulate many facets of a heritage which people aspire to access; they may also represent a part-mythical family origin for those seeking roots .... [T]he number of Americans who choose to adopt a Scottish element as part of their identity can be attributed in substantial part to the power these symbols possess.

This swell of diasporic tartan enthusiasm seems to have been triggered in the 1950s, the beginning of the age of affordable powered flight, as clan chiefs like Dame  Flora MacLeod  of Clan MacLeod  travelled abroad to promote Scottish tourism and other connections.[8]  (At least 1 in 5 Scottish-descended people surveyed in 2017 by VisitScotland , the national tourism board, expressed an interest in travelling to Scotland.)[27]  However, in 2009, the US-based Council of Scottish Clans and Associations reported a drop in the number of active clan societies (which peaked at 170, and drive considerable tourism as well as historic-place restoration efforts), with up to a 25% decrease in individual memberships, as well as some of the annual games events coming to an end; "new technology" (i.e. the Internet) seemed to be related.[28]

Events [ edit ]

Heavy events [ edit ] A caber being thrown at the 2000 New Hampshire  Highland Games

In their original form centuries ago, Highland games revolved around athletic and sports competitions. Though other activities were always a part of the festivities, many today still consider Highland athletics to be what the games are all about—in short, that the athletics are the games, and all the other activities are just entertainment. Regardless, it remains true today that the athletic competitions are at least an integral part of the events and one—the caber toss—has come to almost symbolise the Highland games.

  • Stone put  or "putting the heavy stone": This event is similar to the modern-day shot put  as seen in the Olympic Games. Instead of a steel shot, a large stone of variable weight is often used. There are also some differences from the Olympic shot put in allowable techniques. There are two versions of the stone toss events, differing in allowable technique. The "Braemar Stone" uses a 20–26 lb (9–12 kg) stone for men (13–18 lb or 6–8 kg for women) and does not allow any run up to the toeboard or "trig" to deliver the stone, i.e., it is a standing put. In the "Open Stone" using a 16–22 lb (7–10 kg) stone for men (8–12 lb or 3.5–5.5 kg for women), the thrower is allowed to use any throwing style so long as the stone is put with one hand with the stone resting cradled in the neck until the moment of release. Most athletes in the open stone event use either the "glide" or the "spin" techniques.
  • Scottish hammer throw: This event is similar to the hammer throw  as seen in modern-day track and field competitions, though with some differences. In the Scottish event, a round metal ball weighing 16 or 22 lb (7.25 or 10 kg) for men, or 12 or 16 lb (5.5 or 7.25 kg) for women, is attached to the end of a shaft about 4 feet (1.2 metres) in length and made out of wood, bamboo, rattan, or plastic. With the feet in a fixed position, the hammer is whirled about one's head and thrown for distance over the shoulder. Hammer throwers sometimes employ specially designed footwear with flat blades to dig into the turf to maintain their balance and resist the centrifugal forces of the implement as it is whirled about the head. This substantially increases the distance attainable in the throw. Weight throw
  • Weight throw , also known as the weight for distance event. There are actually two separate events, one using a light (28 lb for men and 14 lb for women) and the other a heavy (56 lb for men, 42 lb for masters men, and 28 lb for women) weight. The weights are made of metal and have a handle attached either directly or by means of a chain. The implement is thrown using one hand only, but otherwise using any technique. Usually a spinning technique is employed. The longest throw wins.
  • Weight over the bar , also known as "weight for height". The athletes attempt to toss a 56-pound (4-stone ) weight with an attached handle over a horizontal bar using only one hand. Each athlete is allowed three attempts at each height. Successful clearance of the height allows the athlete to advance into the next round at a greater height. The competition is determined by the highest successful toss with fewest misses being used to break tie scores.
  • Sheaf toss : A bundle of straw (the sheaf) weighing 20 pounds (9.1 kg) for the men and 10 pounds (4.5 kg) for the women and wrapped in a burlap bag is tossed vertically with a pitchfork over a raised bar much like that used in pole vaulting. The progression and scoring of this event is similar to the Weight Over The Bar. There is significant debate among athletes as to whether the sheaf toss is in fact an authentic Highland event. Some argue it is actually a country fair event, but all agree that it is a great crowd pleaser.[citation needed ]
  • Maide-leisg  (Gaelic for 'lazy stick', pronounced  [matʲəˈʎeʃkʲ] ): Trial of strength performed by two competitors sitting on the ground with the soles of their feet pressing against each other. Thus seated, they hold a stick between their hands which they pull against each other until one of them is raised from the ground. The oldest maide-leisg  competition in the world takes place at the Carloway show and Highland games on the Isle of Lewis.

Many of the heavy events competitors in Scottish highland athletics are former high school and college track and field athletes who find the Scottish games are a good way to continue their competitive careers.

Increasingly in the US, the heavy events are attracting women, as well as master-class athletes, which has led to a proliferation of additional classes in heavy-events competitions. Lighter implements are used in the women's classes.

Music [ edit ] Massed bands at the 2005 Pacific Northwest Highland Games

For many Highland games festival attendees, the most memorable of all the events at the games is the massing of the pipe bands. Normally held in conjunction with the opening and closing ceremonies of the games, as many as 20 or more pipe bands will march and play together. The result is a thunderous rendition of Scotland the Brave  or Amazing Grace , and other crowd-pleasing favorite's.

The music of the great Highland bagpipe  has come to symbolize music at the games and of Scotland  itself. In addition to the massed bands (when all the attending pipe bands play together), nearly all Highland games gatherings feature a wide range of piping and drumming competition, including solo piping and drumming, small group ensembles and full the pipe bands.

Music at Highland games gatherings also includes other forms, such as fiddling , harp  circles, and Celtic  bands.

Princeton University 91 languages
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Coordinates : 40°20′43″N  74°39′22″W From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Princeton" redirects here. For the municipality in New Jersey, see Princeton, New Jersey . For other uses, see Princeton (disambiguation) . Princeton University
Latin : Universitas Princetoniensis
Former names College of New Jersey (1746–1896)
MottoDei Sub Numine Viget  (Latin )[1] On seal : Vet[us] Nov[um] Testamentum  (Latin)
Motto in English "Under God's Power She Flourishes"[1] On seal : "Old Testament and New Testament"
TypePrivate  research university
EstablishedOctober 22, 1746; 276 years ago
Accreditation MSCHE
Academic affiliations
  • AAU
  • COFHE
  • NAICU
  • URA
  • Space-grant
Endowment $35.8 billion (2022)[2]
President Christopher L. Eisgruber
Provost Jennifer Rexford
Academic staff 1,068 (Fall 2021)[3]
Total staff 7,300[4]
Students8,478 (Fall 2021)[3]
Undergraduates 5,321 (Fall 2021)[3]
Postgraduates 3,157 (Fall 2021)[3]
Doctoral students 2,631 (Fall 2019)[5]
LocationPrinceton , New Jersey , United States 40°20′43″N  74°39′22″W [6]
CampusSmall city , 600 acres (2.4 km2)[4]
NewspaperThe Daily Princetonian
Colors Black and orange[7]     
Nickname Tigers
Sporting affiliations
  • NCAA Division I FCS  – Ivy League
  • ECAC Hockey
  • EARC
  • EIVA
  • CWPA
  • IRA
  • EAWRC
MascotThe Tiger
Websitewww.princeton.edu

Princeton University  is a private  Ivy League  research university  in Princeton, New Jersey . Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth  as the  College of New Jersey , Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution  of higher education in the United States  and one of the nine colonial colleges  chartered before the American Revolution .[8] [9] [a]  The institution moved to Newark  in 1747, and then to the current site nine years later. It officially became a university in 1896 and was subsequently renamed Princeton University.

The university is governed by the Trustees of Princeton University  and has an endowment of $37.7 billion, the largest endowment per student  in the United States. Princeton provides undergraduate  and graduate instruction  in the humanities , social sciences , natural sciences , and engineering  to approximately 8,500 students on its 600 acres (2.4 km2) main campus. It offers postgraduate degrees through the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs , the School of Engineering and Applied Science , the School of Architecture  and the Bendheim Center for Finance . The university also manages the Department of Energy's  Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory  and is home to the NOAA's  Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory . It is classified  among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and has one of the largest university libraries in the world.[14]

Princeton uses a residential college  system and is known for its upperclassmen eating clubs . The university has over 500 student organizations. Princeton students embrace a wide variety of traditions from both the past and present. The university is a NCAA Division I  school and competes in the Ivy League. The school's athletic team, the Princeton Tigers , has won the most titles in its conference and has sent many students and alumni to the Olympics .

As of October 2021, 75 Nobel laureates , 16 Fields Medalists and 16 Turing Award laureates have been affiliated with Princeton University as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, Princeton has been associated with 21 National Medal of Science  awardees, 5 Abel Prize  awardees, 11 National Humanities Medal  recipients, 217 Rhodes Scholars , 137 Marshall Scholars , and 62 Gates Cambridge Scholars . Two U.S. Presidents , twelve U.S. Supreme Court Justices  (three of whom currently serve on the court) and numerous living industry and media tycoons and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princeton's alumni body. Princeton has graduated many members of the U.S. Congress  and the U.S. Cabinet , including eight Secretaries of State , three Secretaries of Defense  and two Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .

History [ edit ] Main article: History of Princeton University

Founding [ edit ] The Log College , an influential aspect of Princeton's development

Princeton University, founded as the College of New Jersey, was shaped much in its formative years by the "Log College ", a seminary  founded by the Reverend William Tennent  at Neshaminy, Pennsylvania , in about 1726. While no legal connection ever existed, many of the pupils and adherents from the Log College would go on to financially support and become substantially involved in the early years of the university.[12]  While early writers considered it as the predecessor of the university,[15]  the idea has been rebuked by Princeton historians.[16] [12]

The founding of the university itself originated from a split in the Presbyterian  church following the Great Awakening .[17]  In 1741, New Light  Presbyterians were expelled from the Synod of Philadelphia  in defense of how the Log College ordained ministers.[18]  The four founders of the College of New Jersey, who were New Lights, were either expelled or withdrew from the Synod and devised a plan to establish a new college, for they were disappointed with Harvard  and Yale 's opposition to the Great Awakening and dissatisfied with the limited instruction at the Log College.[18] [17]  They convinced three other Presbyterians to join them and decided on New Jersey as the location for the college, as at the time, there was no institution between Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut , and the College of William & Mary  in Williamsburg, Virginia ; it was also where some of the founders preached.[19]  Although their initial request was rejected by the Anglican  governor Lewis Morrison , the acting governor  after Morrison's death, John Hamilton , granted a charter for the College of New Jersey on October 22, 1746.[20] [19]  In 1747, approximately five months after acquiring the charter, the trustees elected Jonathan Dickinson  as president and opened in Elizabeth, New Jersey ,[20]  where classes were held in Dickinson's parsonage .[21]  With its founding, it became the fourth-oldest institution  of higher education in the United States, and one of nine colonial colleges charted before the American Revolution .[8] [9]  The founders aimed for the college to have an expansive curriculum to teach people of various professions, not solely ministerial work.[22] [20]  Though the school was open to those of any religious denomination,[23]  with many of the founders being of Presbyterian faith, the college became the educational and religious capital of Scotch-Irish  Presbyterian America.[24]

Colonial and early years [ edit ] From 1760, the first picture of Nassau Hall

In 1747, following the death of then President Jonathan Dickinson, the college moved from Elizabeth to Newark, New Jersey , as that was where presidential successor Aaron Burr Sr. 's parsonage was located.[20]  That same year, Princeton's first charter came under dispute by Anglicans, but on September 14, 1748, the recently appointed governor Jonathan Belcher  granted a second charter.[25] [26]  Belcher, a Congregationalist , had become alienated from his alma mater , Harvard, and decided to "adopt" the infant college.[25] [23]  Belcher would go on to raise funds for the college and donate his 474-volume library, making it one of the largest libraries in the colonies.[25] [27]

In 1756, the college moved again to its present home in Princeton, New Jersey , because Newark was felt to be too close to New York.[28] [29]  Princeton was chosen for its central location in New Jersey and by strong recommendation by Belcher.[25] [30]  The college's home in Princeton was Nassau Hall , named for the royal William III of England , a member of the House of Orange-Nassau .[31]  The trustees of the College of New Jersey initially suggested that Nassau Hall be named in recognition of Belcher because of his interest in the institution; the governor vetoed the request.[25]

John Witherspoon , President of the college (1768–94) and signer of the Declaration of Independence

Burr, who would die in 1757, devised a curriculum for the school and enlarged the student body.[32]  Following the untimely death of Burr and the college's next three presidents ,[33]  John Witherspoon  became president in 1768 and remained in that post until his death in 1794.[34]  With his presidency, Witherspoon focused the college on preparing a new generation of both educated clergy and secular leadership in the new American nation.[35] [36]  To this end, he tightened academic standards, broadened the curriculum, solicited investment for the college, and grew its size.[37] [36]

A signer of the Declaration of Independence , Witherspoon and his leadership led the college to becoming influential to the American Revolution .[34] [38] [39]  In 1777, the college became the site for the Battle of Princeton .[34]  During the battle, British soldiers briefly occupied Nassau Hall before eventually surrendering to American forces led by General George Washington .[40]  During the summer and fall of 1783, the Continental Congress  and Washington met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the country's capital  for four months;[41]  Nassau Hall is where Congress learned of the peace treaty between the colonies and the British.[42] [43]  The college did suffer from the revolution, with a depreciated endowment  and hefty repair bills for Nassau Hall.[44]

19th century [ edit ]

In 1795, President Samuel Stanhope Smith  took office, the first alumnus to become president.[45]  Nassau Hall suffered a large fire that destroyed its interior in 1802, which Smith blamed on rebellious students.[46]  The college raised funds for reconstruction, as well as the construction of two new buildings.[47]  In 1807, a large student riot occurred at Nassau Hall, spurred by underlying distrust of educational reforms by Smith away from the Church.[45] [48]  Following Smith's mishandling of the situation, falling enrollment, and faculty resignations, the trustees of the university offered resignation to Smith, which he accepted.[47]  In 1812, Ashbel Green  was unanimously elected by the trustees of the College to become the eighth president.[49]  After the liberal tenure of Smith, Green represented the conservative "Old Side," in which he introduced rigorous disciplinary rules and heavily embraced religion.[50] [51]  Even so, believing the College was not religious enough, he took a prominent role in establishing the Princeton Theological Seminary  next door.[50] [49]  While student riots were a frequent occurrence during Green's tenure, enrollment did increase under his administration.[52]

In 1823, James Carnahan  became president, arriving as an unprepared and timid leader.[53] [54]  With the college riven by conflicting views between students, faculty, and trustees, and enrollment hitting its lowest in years, Carnahan considered closing the university.[53]  Carnahan's successor, John Maclean Jr. , who was only a professor at the time, recommended saving the university with the help of alumni; as a result, Princeton's alumni association, led by James Madison , was created and began raising funds.[53] [55]  With Carnahan and Maclean, now vice-president, working as partners, enrollment and faculty increased, tensions decreased, and the college campus expanded.[55]  Maclean took over the presidency in 1854, and led the university through the American Civil War .[56]  When Nassau Hall burned down again in 1855,[57]  Maclean raised funds and used the money to rebuild Nassau Hall and run the university on an austerity  budget during the war years.[56]  With a third of students from the college being from the South, enrollment fell.[58]  Once many of the Southerners left, the campus became a sharp proponent for the Union ,[59]  even bestowing an honorary degree to President Lincoln .[60]

James McCosh , President of the college (1868–88)

James McCosh  became the college's president in 1868, and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the war.[61]  During his two decades of service, he overhauled the curriculum, oversaw an expansion of inquiry into the sciences, recruited distinguished faculty, and supervised the addition of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic  style to the campus.[61] [62]  McCosh's tenure also saw the creation and rise of many extracurricular activities, like the Princeton Glee Club , the Triangle Club , the first intercollegiate football team, and the first permanent eating club ,[63]  as well as the elimination of fraternities and sororities.[64]  In 1879, Princeton conferred its first doctorates  on James F. Williamson and William Libby, both members of the Class of 1877.[65]

Francis Patton  took the presidency in 1888, and although his election was not met by unanimous enthusiasm, he was well received by undergraduates.[66]  Patton's administration was marked with great change, for Princeton's enrollment and faculty had doubled. At the same time, the college underwent large expansion and social life was changing in reflection of the rise in eating clubs  and burgeoning interest in athletics.[67]  In 1893, the honor system was established, allowing for unproctored exams.[68] [69]  In 1896, the college officially became a university,[70]  and as a result, it officially changed its name to Princeton University.[71]  In 1900, the Graduate School  was formally established.[70]  Even with such accomplishments, Patton's administration remained lackluster with its administrative structure[72]  and towards its educational standards.[68]  Due to profile changes in the board of trustees and dissatisfaction with his administration, he was forced to resign in 1902.[72]

20th century [ edit ] Woodrow Wilson , President of Princeton University (1902–10) and 28th president of the United States

Following Patton's resignation, Woodrow Wilson , an alumnus and popular professor, was elected the 13th president of the university.[73] [74]  Noticing falling academic standards, Wilson orchestrated significant changes to the curriculum, where freshman and sophomores followed a unified curriculum while juniors and seniors concentrated study in one discipline.[75]  Ambitious seniors were allowed to undertake independent work, which would eventually shape Princeton's emphasis on the practice for the future.[76]  Wilson further reformed the educational system by introducing the preceptorial system in 1905,[75]  a then-unique concept in the United States that augmented the standard lecture method of teaching with a more personal form in which small groups of students, or precepts, could interact with a single instructor, or preceptor, in their field of interest.[77]  The changes brought about many new faculty and cemented Princeton's academics for the first half of the 20th century.[78]  Due to the tightening of academic standards, enrollment declined severely until 1907.[75]  In 1906, the reservoir Lake Carnegie  was created by Andrew Carnegie ,[79]  and the university officially became nonsectarian .[80]  Before leaving office, Wilson strengthened the science program to focus on "pure" research and broke the Presbyterian lock on the board of trustees.[73] [81]  However, he did fail in winning support for the permanent location of the Graduate School and the elimination of the eating clubs, which he proposed replacing with quadrangles, a precursor to the residential college system.[82]  Wilson also continued to keep Princeton closed off from accepting Black students.[83]  When an aspiring Black student wrote a letter to Wilson, he got his secretary to reply telling him to attend a university where he would be more welcome.[84]

John Grier Hibben  became president in 1912, and would remain in the post for two decades.[85]  On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College  was dedicated.[79]  When the United States entered World War I  in 1917, Hibben allocated all available University resources to the government. As a result, military training schools opened on campus and laboratories and other facilities were used for research and operational programs. Overall, more than 6,000 students served in the armed forces, with 151 dying during the war.[86]  After the war, enrollment spiked and the trustees established the system of selective admission in 1922.[87]  From the 1920s to the 1930s, the student body featured many students from preparatory schools, zero Black students, and dwindling Jewish enrollment because of quotas.[88]  Aside from managing Princeton during WWI, Hibben introduced the senior thesis in 1923 as a part of The New Plan of Study.[89] [90]  He also brought about great expansion to the university, with the creation of the School of Architecture in 1919, the School of Engineering in 1921, and the School of Public and International Affairs in 1930.[91]  By the end of his presidency, the endowment had increased by 374 percent, the total area of the campus doubled, the faculty experienced impressive growth, and the enrollment doubled.[92] [90]

Hibben's successor, Harold Willis Dodds  would lead the university through the Great Depression , World War II , and the Korean Conflict .[93]  With the Great Depression, many students were forced to withdraw due to financial reasons.[94]  At the same time, Princeton's reputation in physics and mathematics surged as many European scientists left for the United States due to uneasy tension caused by Nazi Germany .[95]  In 1930, the Institute for Advanced Study  was founded to provide a space for the influx of scientists, such as Albert Einstein .[96]  Many Princeton scientists would work on the Manhattan Project  during the war, [97]  including the entire physics department.[98]  During World War II, Princeton offered an accelerated program for students to graduate early before entering the armed forces.[99]  Student enrollment fluctuated from month to month, and many faculty were forced to teach unfamiliar subjects. Still, Dodds maintained academic standards and would establish a program for servicemen, so they could resume their education once discharged.[100]

1945 to present [ edit ]

Post-war years saw scholars renewing broken bonds through numerous conventions, expansion of the campus, and the introduction of distribution requirements.[101] [102]  The period saw the desegregation of Princeton, which was stimulated by changes to the New Jersey constitution.[103]  Princeton began undertaking a sharper focus towards research in the years after the war, with the construction of Firestone Library in 1948 and the establishment of the Forrestal Research Center in the 1950s.[104]  Government sponsored research increased sharply, particularly in the physics and engineering departments,[105]  with much of it occurring at the new Forrestal campus.[106]  Though, as the years progressed, scientific research at the Forrestal campus declined, and in 1973, some of the land was converted to commercial and residential spaces.[107]

Robert Goheen  would succeed Dodds by unanimous vote and serve as president until 1972.[108]  Goheen's presidency was characterized as being more liberal than previous presidents, and his presidency would see a rise in Black applicants,[109]  as well as the eventual coeducation of the university in 1969.[110]  During this period of rising diversity, the Third World Center (now known as the Carl A. Fields Center) was dedicated in 1971.[111]  Goheen also oversaw great expansion for the university, with square footage increasing by 80 percentage.[112]

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Princeton experienced unprecedented activism, with most of it centered on the Vietnam War .[113] [114]  While Princeton activism initially remained relatively timid compared to other institutions,[113]  protests began to grow with the founding of a local chapter of Students for a Democratic Society  (SDS) in 1965, which organized many of the later Princeton protests.[113]  In 1966, the SDS gained prominence on campus following picketing  against a speech by President  Lyndon B. Johnson , which gained frontpage coverage by the New York Times. [115] [116]  A notable point of contention on campus was the Institute for Defense Analyses  (IDA) and would feature multiple protests,[113]  some of which required police action.[117]  As the years went on, the protests' agenda broadened to investments in South Africa, environmental issues, and women's rights.[113] [118]  In response to these broadening protests, the Council of the Princeton University Community (CPUC) was founded to serve as a method for greater student voice in governance.[119]  Activism culminated in 1970 with a student, faculty, and staff member strike , so the university could become an "institution against expansion of the war."[120] [b]  Princeton's protests would taper off later that year, with The  Daily Princetonian  saying that, "Princeton 1970–71 was an emotionally burned out university."

In 1982, the residential college system was officially established under Goheen's successor William G. Bowen , who would serve until 1988.[121] [122]  During his presidency, Princeton's endowment increased from $625 million to $2 billion, and a major fundraising drive known as "A Campaign for Princeton" was conducted.[122]  President Harold T. Shapiro  would succeed Bowen and remain president until 2001. Shapiro would continue to increase the endowment, expand academic programs, raise student diversity, and oversee the most renovations in Princeton's history.[123]  One of Shapiro's initiatives was the formation of the multidisciplinary Princeton Environmental Institute in 1994, renamed the High Meadows Environmental Institute  in 2020.[124] [125]  In 2001, Princeton shifted the financial aid policy to a system that replaced all loans with grants.[126]  That same year, Princeton elected its first female president, Shirley M. Tilghman .[127]  Before retiring in 2012, Tilghman expanded financial aid offerings and conducted several major construction projects like the Lewis Center for the Arts and a sixth residential college.[128]  Tilghman also lead initiatives for more global programs, the creation of an office of sustainability, and investments into the sciences.[129]

Princeton's 20th and current president Christopher Eisgruber  was elected in 2013.[130]  In 2017, Princeton University unveiled a large-scale public history  and digital humanities  investigation into its historical involvement with slavery  called the Princeton & Slavery Project. The project saw the publication of hundreds of primary sources, 80 scholarly essays, a scholarly conference, a series of short plays, and an art project.[131]  In April 2018, university trustees announced that they would name two public spaces for James Collins Johnson and Betsey Stockton , enslaved people who lived and worked on Princeton's campus and whose stories were publicized by the project.[132]  In 2019, large-scale student activism again entered the mainstream concerning the school's implementation of federal Title IX  policy relating to Campus sexual assault .[133] [134]  The activism consisted of sit-ins  in response to a student's disciplinary sentence.[135]

Coeducation [ edit ]

Princeton explicitly prohibited the admission of women from its founding in 1746 until 1969. Since it lacked an affiliated women's college, it was often referred to as a "monastery", both lovingly and derisively, by members of the Princeton community.[136] [137]  For about a decade, from 1887 to 1897, nearby Evelyn College for Women  was largely comprised of daughters of professors and sisters of Princeton undergraduates. While no legal connection existed, many Princeton professors taught there and several Princeton administrations, like Francis Patton, were on its board of trustees. It closed in 1897 following the death of its founder, Joshua McIlvaine .[138]

Pyne Hall, where the first female students lived on campus.

In 1947, three female members of the library staff enrolled in beginner Russian courses to deal with an increase in Russian literature in the library.[110]

In 1961, Princeton admitted its first female graduate student, Sabra Follett Meservey,[136]  who would go on to be the first woman to earn a master's degree at Princeton.[110]  Meservey was, at the time of her admission, already a member of the faculty at Douglass College within Princeton. The dean of the graduate school issued a statement clarifying that Meservey's admission was an exception, and that "Princeton may permit other women in the future as special cases, but does not plan to make general admissions of women graduate students."[139]  The student-run Daily Princetonian  ran four articles about Meservey in one issue,[139] [140] [141] [142]  including an editorial lamenting the potential "far reaching implications" of Meservey's admission which concluded: "Princeton is unique as an undergraduate men's college and must remain so."[142]  Eight more women enrolled the following year in the Graduate School.[136]  In 1964, T'sai-ying Cheng became the first woman at Princeton to receive a Ph.D. In 1963, five women came to Princeton for one year to study "critical languages" as undergraduates, but were not candidates for a Princeton degree.[110]  Following abortive discussions with Sarah Lawrence College  to relocate the women's college to Princeton and merge it with the university in 1967,[143]  the administration commissioned a report on admitting women. The final report was issued in January 1969, supporting the idea.[110]  That same month, Princeton's trustees voted 24–8 in favor of coeducation and began preparing the institution for the transition.[144]  The university finished these plans in April 1969 and announced there would be coeducation in September.[145]  Ultimately, 101 female freshman and 70 female transfer students enrolled at Princeton in September 1969.[146] [145] [c]  Those admitted were housed in Pyne Hall, a fairly isolated dormitory; a security system was added, although the women deliberately broke it within a day.[148]

In 1971, Mary St. John Douglas and Susan Savage Speers became the first female trustees,[110]  and in 1974, quotas for men and women were eliminated.[149]  Following a 1979 lawsuit, the eating clubs were required to go coeducational in 1991, after an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court  was denied.[150]  In 2001, Princeton elected its first female president.[127]

Campus [ edit ] The eastern side of the Washington Road Elm Allée , one of the entrances to the campus

The main campus consists of more than 200 buildings on 600 acres (2.4 km2) in Princeton, New Jersey.[4]  The James Forrestal Campus, a smaller location designed mainly as a research and instruction complex, is split between nearby Plainsboro  and South Brunswick . The campuses are situated about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia on the train.[151]  The university also owns more than 520 acres (2.1 km2) of property in West Windsor Township ,[4]  and is where Princeton is planning to construct a graduate student housing complex, which will be known as "Lake Campus North".[152]

The first building on campus was Nassau Hall, completed in 1756, and situated on the northern edge of the campus facing Nassau Street.[153]  The campus expanded steadily around Nassau Hall during the early and middle 19th century.[154] [155]  The McCosh presidency (1868–88) saw the construction of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic  and Romanesque Revival  styles, although many of them are now gone, leaving the remaining few to appear out of place.[156]  At the end of the 19th century, much of Princeton's architecture was designed by the Cope and Stewardson  firm (led by the same University of Pennsylvania professors of architecture who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis  and University of Pennsylvania ) resulting in the Collegiate Gothic  style for which Princeton is known for today.[157]  Implemented initially by William Appleton Potter ,[157]  and later enforced by the university's supervising architect, Ralph Adams Cram ,[158]  the Collegiate Gothic style remained the standard for all new building on the Princeton campus until 1960.[159] [160]  A flurry of construction projects in the 1960s produced a number of new buildings on the south side of the main campus, many of which have been poorly received.[161]  Several prominent architects have contributed some more recent additions, including Frank Gehry  (Lewis Library),[162]  I. M. Pei  (Spelman Halls),[163]  Demetri Porphyrios  (Whitman College , a Collegiate Gothic project),[164]  Robert Venturi  and Denise Scott Brown  (Frist Campus Center , among several others),[165]  Minoru Yamasaki  (Robertson Hall),[166]  and Rafael Viñoly  (Carl Icahn  Laboratory).[167]

A group of 20th-century sculptures scattered throughout the campus forms the Putnam Collection of Sculpture. It includes works by Alexander Calder  (Five Disks: One Empty ), Jacob Epstein  (Albert Einstein ), Henry Moore  (Oval with Points ), Isamu Noguchi  (White Sun ), and Pablo Picasso  (Head of a Woman ).[168]  Richard Serra 's The Hedgehog and The Fox  is located between Peyton and Fine halls next to Princeton Stadium and the Lewis Library.[169]

At the southern edge of the campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial lake named for Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie financed the lake's construction in 1906 at the behest of a friend and his brother who were both Princeton alumni.[170]  Carnegie hoped the opportunity to take up rowing would inspire Princeton students to forsake football , which he considered "not gentlemanly."[171]  The Shea Rowing Center  on the lake's shore continues to serve as the headquarters for Princeton rowing.[172]

Princeton's grounds were designed by Beatrix Farrand  between 1912 and 1943. Her contributions were most recently recognized with the naming of a courtyard for her.[173]  Subsequent changes to the landscape were introduced by Quennell Rothschild & Partners in 2000. In 2005, Michael Van Valkenburgh  was hired as the new consulting landscape architect for Princeton's 2016 Campus Plan.[174]  Lynden B. Miller  was invited to work with him as Princeton's consulting gardening architect, focusing on the 17 gardens that are distributed throughout the campus.[175]

Buildings [ edit ]

Nassau Hall [ edit ] Nassau Hall , the university's oldest building and former capitol of the United States. Pictured in front is Cannon Green.

Nassau Hall is the oldest building on campus. Begun in 1754 and completed in 1756,[176]  it was the first seat of the New Jersey Legislature  in 1776,[177]  was involved in the Battle of Princeton in 1777,[178]  and was the seat of the Congress of the Confederation  (and thus capitol of the United States) from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783.[179]  Since 1911, the front entrance has been flanked by two bronze tigers, a gift of the Princeton Class of 1879, which replaced two lions previously given in 1889.[180]  Starting in 1922, commencement has been held on the front lawn of Nassau Hall when there is good weather.[181]  In 1966, Nassau Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places .[182]  Nowadays, it houses the office of the university president and other administrative offices.[183] [184]

To the south of Nassau Hall lies a courtyard that is known as Cannon Green.[185]  Buried in the ground at the center is the "Big Cannon," which was left in Princeton by British troops as they fled following the Battle of Princeton. It remained in Princeton until the War of 1812 , when it was taken to New Brunswick .[186]  In 1836, the cannon was returned to Princeton and placed at the eastern end of town. Two years later, it was moved to the campus under cover of night by Princeton students, and in 1840, it was buried in its current location.[187]  A second "Little Cannon" is buried in the lawn in front of nearby Whig Hall. The cannon, which may also have been captured in the Battle of Princeton, was stolen by students of Rutgers University  in 1875. The theft ignited the Rutgers-Princeton Cannon War . A compromise between the presidents of Princeton and Rutgers ended the war and forced the return of the Little Cannon to Princeton.[187]  The protruding cannons are occasionally painted scarlet by Rutgers students who continue the traditional dispute.[188] [189]

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